MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES

MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES: OPERATIONAL FINITION AND SCALE
Measurement of the variables in the theoretical framework is an integral part of research and an important aspect of research design. Unless the variables are measured in some ways, we will not be able to test our hypothesis and find answers to complex research issues. Objects that can be physically measured by some calibrated instruments pose no measurement problem. One can also check the company records to obtain or verify certain types of information. But when we get to the realm of people’s subjective feelings, attitudes, and perceptions, the measurement of these factors or variables becomes difficult. This is one of the aspects of organizational behaviour and management research that adds to the complexity of research study.
There at least two types of variables: one lends itself to objective and precise measurement; the other is nebulous and does not lend itself to accurate measurement because of its subjective nature. However, despite the lack of physical measuring devices to measure the latter type, there are ways of tapping the subjective feelings and perceptions of individuals. One technique is to reduce the abstract notions or concepts to observable behaviour and characteristics. The reduction of abstract concepts to render them measurable in a tangible way is what is called operationalizing the concepts.
operationalzing or operationally defining a concept to render it measurable, is done by looking at the behavioural dimensions, facts ,or properties denoted by the concept. These are them translate into observable and measurable elements so as to develop an index of measurement of the concept. However, just as it is to understand what an operational definition is, equally important is it to remember what it is not. An operational definition does not describe the correlate of the concept. Thus, it is clear that operationally defining a concept does not consist of delineating the reason, antecedents, consequences, or correlates of the concepts. Rather, it describes its observable characteristics in order to be able to measure the concept. It is important to remember this because if we either operationalize the concepts incorrectly or confuse them with other concepts, then we will not have valid measures. This mean that we will not have good data and our research will not be scientific.
SCALES
Now that we have learned how to operationalize concepts, we need to measure them in some manner. To this end ,we will name types of scales that can be applied to measure different variables. As scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are distinguished as to how they differ from one another on the variables of interest to our study. The scale or tool could be a gross one ion the sense that it would only broadly categorize individuals on certain variables, or it could be a fine-tuned tool that would differentiate individuals on the variables with varying degrees of sophistication. There are four basic types of scales:
Nominal scale
Ordinal scale
Interval scale
And ratio scale
A nominal scale :is one that allows the researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups. For example, with respect to the variable of gender, respondent can be grouped into two categories--male and female.
An ordinal scale not only categorizes the variables in such a way as to denote differences among the various categories, it also rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way.
An interval scale allows us to perform certain arithmetical operations on the data collected from the respondents.
Ratio scale overcomes the disadvantages of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that it has an absolute (in contrast to an arbitrary) zero point, which is a meaningful measurement point.
From the foregoing, we could see that knowledge of operationalization of a concept and the type of scale to use for purposes of categorizing ,rank-ordering, and tapping variables to varying degrees of sophistication, helps managers to undertake small surveys on their own, without much difficulty.
Endnote
Sekaran, Uma. (2003). Research methods for business: A skill-building approach.
(4th ed.) Hoboken, N. J.: Wiley.

SAMPLING

SAMPLING
Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population, so that a study of the sample and an understanding of its propreties.In learning how representative data (i.e., as reflected in the universe)can be collected, a few terms as described below ,have to be first understood.
SAMPLE: A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected from it. In other words, some, not all, elements of the population would form the sample.
POPULATION: Population refers to the entire group of people.
ELEMENT: An element is a single member of the population.
SUBJECT: A is a single member of the sample, just as an element is a single member of the population.
POPULATION FRAME: The population frame is a listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn
SAMPLING DESIGN
There are two types of sampling designs: probability and nonprobability sampling, in probability sampling, the elements in the population have some known chance or probability of being selected as sample subjects i.e. unrestricted (simple random sampling) or restricted (complex probability sampling. In nonprobability sampling, the elements do not have a known or predetermined chance of being selected as subjects. I.e. convenience sampling, purposive sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling.
PROBANILITY SAMPLING: Advantages
High generalizability of findings.
Easy to use if population frame is available.
Most efficient among all probability designs.
All groups are adequately sampled and comparison among groups are possible.
In geography cluster, costs of data collection are low.
Area sampling is cost-effective. Useful for decision relating to a particular location.
Offer more detailed information on the topic of study.
Disadvantages
Not as efficient as stratified sampling
Systematic biases are possible
More time consuming than simple random sampling design since subsets of clusters are more homogeneous than heterogeneous.
Original biases, if any, will be carried over.
Individual may not be happy responding the second time.
NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING: Advantages
Quick and convenient
Less expensive
Sometimes the only meaningful way to investigate
Very useful where minority participation in a study is critical
Disadvantages
Not generalizable at all.
ISSEUS OF PRECISION AND CONVIDENCE IN DETERMINIG SAMPLING
Having discussed the various probability and nonprobability sampling designs, we now need to focus attention on the second aspects of the sampling design issue—sample size. Suppose we select 30 people from a population of 3,000through a simple random sampling procedure. Will we able to generalize our findings to the population with confidence, since we have chosen a probability design that has the most generalizability? What is the sample size that would be required to make reasonable precise generalizations with confidence? What do precision mean and confidence mean? These issues will be considered
PRECISION: this is refers to how close our estimate is to the true population characteristic. Usually, we would estimate the population parameter to fall within a range, based on the sample estimate.
CONFIDENCE: this denotes how certain we are that our estimate will really hold true for the population. In essence, confidence reflects the level of certainty with which we can state that our estimates of the population parameters, based on our sample statistics will hold true.
EFFICIENCY IN SAMPLING
Efficiency in sampling is attained when for a given level of precision (standard error), the sample size could be reduced, or for a given sample size (n), the level of precision could be increased. Some probability sampling designs are more efficient than others. The simple random sampling procedure is not always the more efficient plan to adopt; some other probability sampling designs are often more efficient. A stratified random sampling plan is often the most efficient, and a disproportionate stratified random sampling design has been shown to be more efficient than a proportionate sampling design in many cases. Cluster sampling is less efficient than simple random sampling because there is generally more homogeneity among the subjects in the cluster than is found in the elements in the population. Multistage cluster sampling is more efficient than single-stage cluster sampling when there is more heterogeneity found in the earlier stages. There is often a trade-off between time and cost efficiencies and precision efficiencies. The choice of sampling plan thus depends on the objectives of the research, as well as on the extent and nature of efficiency desire.
MANAGERIAL RELEVANCE
Awareness of sampling designs and sample size help managers to understand why a particular method of sampling is used by researcher. It also facilitates understanding of the cost implications of different designs, and the trade-off between precision and confidence vis-a-vis the costs. This enables the managers to understand the risk they take in implementing changes based on the results of the research study.
Lastly, sampling design decisions are important aspects of research design and include both the sampling plan to be used and the sample size that will be needed. However, care should be taken not to overgeneralize the results of any study to population that are not represented by the sample. This is a problem common in some research studies.
Endnote
Sekaran, Uma. (2003).Research methods for business: A skill-building approach.
(4th Ed.) Hoboken, N. J.: Wiley.

DATA COLLECTION METHODS

DATA COLLECTION METHODS
Data can be defined as facts or information especially when examined and used to find out things or to make decisions.
Sources of data
Primary data
Secondary data
Primary data refer to information obtained firsthand by the researcher on the variables of interest for the specific purpose of the study.
Types of primary data
INTERVIEWS (structured and unstructured)
Face-face interviews
Telephone interviews
Computer based-assisted interview
Interviews from electronic media
Internet
FACE-FACE INTERVIEWS: Advantages;
The main advantage of face-face interviews or direct interviews is that the researcher can adapt the questions as necessary, clarify doubt, and ensure that the responses are properly understood, by repeating or rephrasing the questions. The researcher can also pick up nonverbal cues from the respondent. Any discomfort, stress, or problems that the respondent experiences can be detected. This would be impossible to detect in a telephone interview.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantages of face-face interviews are the geographical limitations they may impose on the surveys and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to be nationally or internationally. Another drawback is that respondents might feel uneasy about the anonymity of their responses when they interact face to face with interviewer.
TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS: Advantages
The main advantages of telephone interviewing, from the researcher’ point of view, is that a number of different people can be reached in a relatively short period of time. From the respondents’ point of view, it would eliminate any discomfort that some of them might feel in facing the interviewer.
Disadvantages
The main disadvantage of telephone interviewing is that the respondent could unilateral terminate the interview. Caller ID might further aggravate the situation.
CUMPUTER-ASSISTED INTERVIEWING
With the modern technology, questions are flashed onto the computer screen and the interviewers can enter the answer of the respondents directly in to the computer. The accuracy of the data collection is considerably enhanced since the software can be programmed to flag the “offbase” or or “out of rage” responces.CAI also prevent the respondents from asking the wrong questions or in the wrong sequence since the questions are automatically flashed to the respondents in an ordered sequence.
Advantages
Computer vastly eases the job of the interviewer.
Fast
Convenient
Disadvantage
Tedious
Sometime time consuming.
QUESTIONAIRES: A questionnaires is a preformulated set of questions to which respondent’s records their answer, usually within rather closely define alternatives.questionaires are efficient data collection mechanisms when the researcher knows exactly what is required and how to measure the variables of interest. Questionnaires can be administered;
Personally
Mail to the respondents
Electronically distributed
OBSERVATIONAL SURVEY:
Whereas interviews and questionnaires elicit responses from the subject; it is possible to gather data without asking questions of respondets.People can be observed in their natural work environment or in the lab setting, and their activities and behaviours or other items of interest can be noted and recorded. Also their movements, work habits ,the statements made and the meeting conducted by them, their facial expressions of joy, anger ,and other emotions, and body language can be observed. The researcher can play one of two roles while gathering field observational data—that of nonparticipant-observer or participant-observer.


Advantages of observational studies
The data are more reliable and free from respondents’ biases.
It is easy to note environmental influences.
Easy to observe certain individuals
Disadvantages
The method is slow, tedious and expensive.
Though mood, feelings, and attitudes can be guess, but the cognitive thought process of individuals cannot be captured.
Because of long period involve, fatigue may set in which might bias the recorded data.
MULTIMETHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Because almost all data collection methods have some biases associated with them, collecting data through multimethods and from multiple sources lend rigor to research.Likewise, data obtained from several sources bear a great degree of similarity. We would have stronger conviction in the goodness of the data.Therefore; high correlations among data obtained on the same variables from different sources and through different collection methods lend more credibility to the research instrument and to the data obtained through these instruments. Good research entails collection of data from multiple sources and through multiple data collection methods, such research, though, would be more costly and time consuming.
Endnote
Sekaran, Uma. (2003).Research methods for business: A skill-building approach.
(4th Ed) Hoboken, N. J.: Wiley.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS step 6.

THE RESEARCH PROCESSS
STEP6: element of research design
The research design is an activity which involves a series of rational decision-making of choices.specifically, there are six basic aspects of research design, and these are:
PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing, and case study analysis.
EXTENT OF THE RESEARCHER INTERFERNCE WITH THE STUDY: minimal, moderate, excessive.
THE STUDY SETTING: field study, field experiments, lab experiments.
THE UNIT OF ANALYSIS: individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures.
TYPES OF INVESTIGATION: casual, correlation.
TIME HORIZON: cross-sectional, longitudinal.
THE MANAGERIAL IMPLICATINS
Knowledge about research issues help the manager to understand what the researcher is attempting to do. the manager also understand why the reports sometimes indicate data analytic results based on small sample size, when a lot of time has been spent in collecting data from several sources of individuals, as in the case of studies involving groups, departments, or branch offices.
Also knowledge about research design help managers to understand the main difference between casual and correlational studies, and afforded the managers the trouble of falling into trap of making implicit assumption when two variables are only associated with each other.Furthemore, it also help managers to be economical in making research study decisions. Knowing that more rigorous research designs consume more resources, the manager is in a position to weigh the gravity of the problem experienced and decide what kind of design would yield acceptable results in an efficient manner.
Lastly, knowledge of design research details help managers to study and intelligently comment on research proposals.
Endnote
Skaran, Uma. (2003). Research methods for business: A skill-building approach.
(4th Ed.) Hoboken, N. J.: Wiley.

ESTABLISHING LEADERSHIP THROUGH STRATEGIC INTERNAL COMMUNICATION

ESTABLISHING LEADERSHIP THROUGH STRATEGIC INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
One of the major responsibilities of an organization leader is communication with the employees. By communicating effectively with the employees, leaders are not simply creating ambassadors of goodwill for their company; they are providing direction, establishing a positive and productive working environment, and influencing their bottom lines. Organizational direction comes from leaders having created and effectively communicated a clear and meaningful vision. Developing and communicating a vision is one of the most important and visible communication tasks of senior management. Employees are motivated when, through words and actions, the leaders carefully translate the vision and strategic goals into terms that are meaningful to all employees. To do so requires analyzing audiences, targeting messages, and creating communicating strategy. Motivating employees also requires listening to them and using emotional intelligence to connect with them.
ESTABLISHING EFFECTIVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
Although creating the internal messages that are to be sent to your employees is your primary leadership responsibility, you also need ton pay attention to the other main components of any good communication strategy in your effort to ensure your internal communication supports and assists in accomplishing your company strategy. To ensure your internal communication is comprehensive, you will want to use an analytical approach to developing a communication strategy for your important communication. In establishing an effective internal communication, the strategic employee communication model has been developed to help leaders. At its core, the model shows that effective internal communication consists of the following.
supportive management
targeted messages
effective media
well-positioned staff
ongoing assessment.
USING MISSION AND VISION TO STRENGTHEN INTERNAL COMMUNICATION
The strategic employees communication model provides an analytically rigorous approach to internal communication that works particularly well with the process side of communication, such as media selection, supportive management ,and ongoing assessment.Missions,visions,value, ands guiding principles make up one category of major strategic messages that most organizations convey to their employees. Leadership communication must include how best to create and deliver these core messages to ensure they are strong and meaningful And not simply feeble slogans good only for adoring coffee cups.However,for visions and missions to achieve its goal, the following questions must be asked:
Why are missions and vision important?
What are missions and visions?
When are they most effective?
How do you build them?
MISSIONS:
A mission is a statement of the reason a company exists that is intended primarily for internal use. It should ensure that employees understand the company’s purpose by defining a company’ basic business.
VISSIONS:
A vision statement establishes the company’s aspirations. It describes as inspiring new reality, achievable in a well –understood and reasonable time frame. Companies often use visions for internal and external audiences, although their greatest purpose is usually to guide internal actions.
DESIGNING AND IMPLEMENTING EFFECTIVE CHANGE COMMUNICATION
Organizational change is inevitable yet rarely easy. Many change efforts fail to deliver the value the company seeks. The greatest difficulty leaders’ face in bringing about change involves the people. For instance, merger and acquisition are one of the most frequent causes of major organizational change, but only few yield the anticipated or hoped results. The organization’s leaders bear the primary responsibility for successfully communicating the rationale for the change, the implementation plans, and the impact on the company as a whole on the individual employees, the leaders will need to decide how much communication will be enough and to establish how to manage the change communication effectively. The following will help leaders in managing change in communication; leaders should:
Determine the scope of the change communication program.
Structure a communication program for major change.
Endnote
Deborah J. Barret.

BUILDING AND LEADING HIGH-PERFORMING TEAMS

BUILDING AND LEADING HIGH-PERFORMANCE TEAMS
Since teams are now so prevalence in all organizations, business leaders need to know how to build and how to manage them to achieve high performance .building an effective team raise both organization and individual leadership issues. Deciding to form a team is a process very similar to deciding to call a meeting. In deciding to use teams across your company, or to form teams individually, you will need to consider certain factors which may include whether a team approach is the best to achieve the organizational goals or a specific objectives or targeted result. Another factor to consider is whether the company provide the necessary training in diversity, team dynamics, problem solving, and process management to ensure team members know how to manage team issues and processes. More so, the employee’s ability to follow team charters, ground rules, and also knows how to manage team conflicts need to be considered. Other factors are whether the current company technology support team communication and collaboration and the ability of the employees to use it, and the compensation and performance measure of the company.
ESTABLISHING THE NECESSARY TEAM WORK PROCESSES
Once a team has been formed, establishing a necessary team work process is the next task for a leader. The following are the necessary team work processes:
Organize or hold an official launch
Lead the team through to the commitment side of the team basic framework which include;
Purpose
Goals
Approach
Creating team charter
Action plan
And, work plan.
MANAGING THE PEOPLE SIDE OF TEAMS
Teams bring together the best talents available to solve problems; however, sometimes these talented people clash. One way to improve the team’s emotional intelligence or ability to work together smoothly is for the team to take time to know something about each other’s current situation, work experiences, personality and cultural differences. This knowledge may not result in team bounding or friendship, which are more the by-product of teams than the goals, but since these softer issues influence how the person behaves as a team member, the knowledge can help the team avoid conflicts and help you as a leader anticipate any problems or performance roadblocks.
Although team members will get to know each other through day-to-day interaction while working together, the team member can shorten the learning curve by discussing the following information at the first team meeting.
1. Position and responsibilities
2. Team experiences
3. Expectation
4. Personality
5. Cultural differences
HANDLING TEAM ISSUE AND COFLICT
Despite all of the best planning and time spent getting to know each other, teams will likely experience conflict. Some of it will be useful and some not, but the odds are that it will occur. As Katzenbach writes, an effective team is “about hard work, conflict, integration, and collective results”. working on a team is not easy, but the benefits can be very rewarding for the team members, and the results can be much better for the company. Obtaining the best results can depend on the team’s ability to manage conflict. Just as individuals, teams disagree in meetings, however, team need to know how to manage conflict in their overall team activities.
TYPES OF TEAM CONFLICT
Internal team conflict will usually be one of the four:
Analytical (team’s constructive disagreement over a project issue or problem)
Task (goal, work process, deliverables)
Interpersonal (personality, diversity, communication style)
Roles (leadership, responsibilities, power struggles)
APPROACHES TO HANDLING TAEM CONFLICT
Most teams will use one of the following three approaches to manage conflict
One on one: individuals involved work it out between themselves.
Facilitation: individuals involved work with a facilitator (mediator)
Team: individuals involved discuss it with the entire team
VIRTUAL TEAMS
Virtual teams are teams whose members are geographically disperse and rely primarily on technology (telephone, computer, video, or some combinations) for communication and to accomplish their work as team. The geographical separation can range from global dispersion to simply being in different location within a single company facility.


ADVANTAGES OF VIRTUAL TEAM
Lowering travel and facility costs
Reducing project schedules
Allowing the leveraging of expertise and vertical integration
Improving efficiency
And, positioning to compete globally.
More openness
Flexibility
Diversity
Access to information.
DISADVANTAGES OF VIRTUAL TEAM
On the other hand, virtual teams also provide challenges, particularly in communication:
Much of the context of communication, so important in high-context societies, is lost.
Cultural differences can become amplified, and personality conflicts more pronounced.
Connection and trust are difficult to build in a virtual environment which may put the team on a “collision course”
ADDRESSING THE CHALLENGES OF VIRTUAL TEAMS
A virtual team need the following to be successful:
Shared beliefs
A storehouse of credibility and trust
And, a shared work space